You can see more about my occupation authorities and proficiency rating in

 My sites at environmental pollution control engineering

http://mapkar.webs.com/

  http://enviro.gigfa.com/

MAPKAR Co. Ltd

An International consultancy environmental

engineering company in water resource

and water quality and sediments monitoring

شرکت  بین المللی مهندسی مشاور محیط زیست

در مطالعات آلو دگی منابع آب و پایش کیفیت آب و رسوب

A  researcher of Environmental monitoring

    Environmental chemistry

   پیام های شما برای من(.....)  set your message to me please ( ...... 

and My topic is

Study of water pollution Assessment and Environmental

Risk Management of CauveryRiver

at Krishna Raja Sagar Dam and its downstream

KRS Dam, Mysore, india

Daik of Dam at KRS garden (Brindavan)a

But

 science belong to all and i would like

to be your consultant and assistant in

Environmental chemical water projects

And So , the thinges that I just follow is

Gate of Dam

 please set your idea and messages in this section

Water analysis ََAnion & Cation accuracy tester

This is a calculator helps you determine the accuracy of your water analysis.
http://www.lenntech.com/ro/accuracy-water-analysis.htm

Water analysis accuracy tester

 

TDS and Electrical Conductivity

 

Water hardness calculator

---------------------------------------------------------------

Molecular Weight Calculator

for Windows 9x/NT/00/ME/XP is Version 6.38:
      mwt6_38.zip (3.1 MB, February 18, 2006)

• Computation of Percent Compositions
• Percent Solver Results The user had entered a target of 3% for oxygen and 62% for chlorine and the program calculated the best x to get the actual percent compositions as close to the target values as possible.
• Editing of User-definable Abbreviations
• The Mole/Mass Converter and Dilution Calculator
• The Formula Finder
• The Capillary Flow and Mass Rate Calculator
• The Amino Acid Notation Converter
• The Peptide Sequence Fragmentation Modelling tool
• Ion Plotting extension of the fragmentation modeller and group of ions zoomed in.
• Isotopic Abundance distribution for C₃₀H₇₂Cl₄
• View of the main program window and math calculator in German

-----------------------------------------------------------

 more sites about accuracy tester

Water-Quality Information -- Field Methods/Techniques

 -------------------

Dissolved oxygen saturation tables

========================

 

Download the Alkalinity Calculator

 

 

EPA On-line Tools for Site Assessment Calculation

http://www.epa.gov/ATHENS/learn2model/part-two/onsite/toc_onsite.htm

======

SOLUTIONS

PERCENT, MOLAR, NORMAL, SATURATED

Solutions Menu

Percent

Molar

Normal

Solutions from Solutions and Titrations

Concentrated Solutions (making solutions from concentrated solutions)

===============

Calculating NSF Water Quality Index

Water Quality Index: pH

Water Quality Index: Turbidity

Water Quality Index: BOD

Water Quality Index: Nitrate

Water Quality Index: Total Phosphate

Alkalinity Speciation Calculator

More References Related to :

WQI Index- Consumer Support Group Online Calculators
http://www.csgnetwork.com/h2oqualindexcvttemponlycalc.html

Path Finder Science
http://pathfinderscience.net/stream/cproto4.cfm

Water Quality Index Stream Monitoring Program
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/pubs/0203052.pdf

Water Quality Index System for Rivers in Malaysia
http://agrolink.moa.my/did/river/sgklang/sgklang_wqi.htm

===========

 

 A. Schezerianum

============

Analysis methods environmental chemistry

The best way to determinat water quality is SMWW or 

Standard Methods for Examination of Water & Wastewater (Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater)
by Lenore S. Clescerl, Arnold E. Greenberg, Andrew D. Eaton

or

free

http://rapidshare.com/files/65046390/SMWW-StandardMethodsForTheExaminationOfWater_Wastewater-APHA_AWWA_20thEd-1999

 

http://rapidshare.com/files/89117694/smww_20th_pdf.rar

 

=====================

If you know any better Analytical method please inform me by sending your massage

  پیام های شما برای من(.....)  set your message to me please  ( ......  ) 

 

======

======

 

Water Quality Parameters and Methods used for Analysis

S. #	Parameters	Test Method
1	Alkalinity (m.mol/l as CaCO3)	2320, Standard method (1992)
2	Arsenic (mg/l)	Merck Test Kit (10-500 mg/l) 1.17926.0001, Germany
3	Bicarbonate	2320, Standard method (1992)
4	Calcium (mg/l)	3500-Ca-D, Standard Method (1992)
5	Carbonate (mg/l)	2320, Standard method (1992)
6	Chloride (mg/l)	Titration (Silver Nitrate), Standard Method (1992)
7	Chlorine (mg/l)	HACH Test Kit, Model CEC, Cat. No. 22231, USA
8	Chromium (mg/l)	1,5-Diphenylcarbohydrazide Method (Hach-8023) by Spectrophotometer
9	Conductivity (mS/cm)	E.C meter, Hach-44600-00, USA
10	Fluoride (mg/l)	8029, SPADNS Method (Hach) by Spectrophotometer
11	Hardness (mg/l)	EDTA Titration, Standard Method (1992)
12	Iron (mg/l)	TPTZ Method (Hach-8112) by Spectrophotometer
13	Lead (mg/l)	Dithizone Method (HACH-8033) by Spectrophotometer
14	Magnesium (mg/l)	2340-C, Standard Method (1992)
15	Nitrate Nitrogen (mg/l)	Cd. Reduction (Hach-8171) by Spectrophotometer
16	Nitrite Nitrogen (mg/l)	Diazotization (Hach-8507) by Spectrophotometer
17	pH at 25oC	pH Meter, Hanna Instrument Model 8519, Italy
18	Phosphate & P (mg/l)	Method (Hach) 8190 & 8048

19	Potassium (mg/l)	Flame photometer PFP7, UK
20	Sodium (mg/l)		Flame photometer PFP7, UK
21	Sulfate (mg/l)		SulfaVer4 (Hach-8051) by Spectrophotometer
22	TotalColiform    (MPN/100ml)		407D, Standard method (1971)
23	TDS (mg/l)		2540C, Standard method (1992)
24	Turbidity (NTU)		Turbidity Meter, Lamotte, Model 2008, USA

 

======

======

 Quality control measures

Quality control measures were started from the filed. Standard sampling methods were adopted to collect the samples. Four types of samples were collected for monitoring purpose where as three kinds of samples were collected for quality control. The detail of these samples is as under:

 

     Maximum Holding time (MHTs) for common water quality determain parameters 

 

fast & respective	6-48 h	7-28 days	6 months
Temprature DO(by electrode) CO2,I2, O3 CL2,ClO2- Salinity pH	BOD  6h Odor            6h DO                 8 h Turbidity 24h CN-,Cr6+ 24h Color      48h PO4 3- ,NO3- 48h Alkalinity/Acid. 24h Chlorophyll  24-48h	16.   NH3.TKN   7d 17.    COD,TOC 7d 18.  solids          7d 19.Pesticides   7d 20.     Conductance     28days 21.T.Phosphate    28 days SO42-,S 2-,F-  28 days	Metals Hardness

Samples for Monitoring Purposes

a)  Samples for microbiological examination in sterile bottle.

b) Samples for the analysis of trace elements by addition of HNO₃ as preservative.

c) Samples for the analysis of Nitrate (N) by addition of boric acid as preservative.

d) Samples without preservative for the analysis of EC, pH, Hardness, Ca,      Mg, Na, K and HCO₃ etc.

============

==============

 Why Should You Measure the TDS level in your Water?
  The EPA Secondary Regulations advise a maximum contamination level (MCL) of 500mg/liter (500 parts per million (ppm)) for TDS. Numerous water supplies exceed this level. When TDS levels exceed 1000mg/L it is generally considered unfit for human consumption. A high level of TDS is an indicator of potential concerns, and warrants further investigation. Most often, high levels of TDS are caused by the presence of potassium, chlorides and sodium. These ions have little or no short-term effects, but toxic ions (lead arsenic, cadmium, nitrate and others) may also be dissolved in the water.

 

============================

How to Measure Dissolved Oxygen

Sampling stations and depths should be selected according to whether or not you are trying to measure these differences or notWhen collecting stream DO samples at several stations for comparison, it is important to select stations with similar flow conditions.

 

 

 

 

------------------======Azide-winkler method - ===----------------

1. Fill a 300-mL glass stoppered BOD bottle
2. Immediately add 2mL of manganese sulfate to the collection bottle
3. Add 2 mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent
4. Add 2 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid via a pipette held just above the surface of the sample.
5. In a glass flask, titrate 201 mL of the sample with sodium thiosulfate to a pale straw color.
6. Add 2 mL of starch solution so a blue color forms.
7.  Continue slowly titrating until the sample turns clear.
8. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the sample is equivalent to the number of milliliters of titrant used. Each milliliter of sodium thiosulfate added in steps 6 and 8 equals 1 mg/L dissolved oxygen

 

 

Measuring pH Accurately

======

  A CONVENTIONAL METHOD FOR MEASURING
THE pH OF A SOLUTION

 

·  Allow the meter to warm up.

·  Open the filling hole; be certain filling solution is nearly to the top. (Refillable electrodes only.)

·  If the meter has a "standby” mode, use it when the electrodes are not immersed. Use the "pH" mode to read the pH of a sample or standard.

·  Calibrate the system each day or before use:

Adjust the meter temperature setting to room temperature, or use an ATC probe.

Obtain two standard buffers: pH of 7.00 at room temperature and an acidic standard if the sample is acidic and a basic standard if the sample is basic.

Rinse the electrodes with distilled water and blot dry. Do not wipe the electrodes as this may create a static charge leading to an erroneous reading.

Immerse the electrodes pH 7.00 calibration buffer. Be certain that the junction is immersed and that the level of sample is below the level of the filling solution. Disengage the standby mode (if present) or follow the manufacturer’s instructions. Allow the reading to stabilize.

Adjust the meter to read 7.00. Go to the standby mode (if present).

Remove the electrodes, rinse with distilled water, and blot dry. Alternatively, rinse the electrodes with the next solution and do not dry.

Place the electrodes in the second standardization buffer, set the meter to read pH, and allow the reading to stabilize. Adjust the meter to the pH of the second buffer with the proper method of adjustment. Remove, rinse, and blot the electrodes.

With an older pH meter, recheck the pH 7.00 buffer as in step d and readjust as necessary. Recheck the second buffer and readjust the meter as necessary. Readjust as needed up to three times. If the readings are not within 0.05 pH units of what they should be after three adjustments, the electrode probably needs cleaning

 TWO-POINT CALIBRATION OF A pH METER.

************************************************************

 

Optional: It is possible to perform quality control checks at this point.

a.                   Linearity Check. To check the linearity of the measuring system, take the reading of a third calibration buffer. For example, if the meter was calibrated with pH 7.00 and pH 10.00 buffers, check a pH 4.00 calibration buffer. Immerse the electrodes in the third buffer, allow the reading to stabilize, and record the value. Do not adjust the meter to this third calibration buffer; the purpose of this third buffer is to check the system’s linearity. If the reading is not within the proper range, as defined by the laboratory’s quality control procedures, the electrodes require maintenance.

b.                  A second quality control check is to test the pH of a control buffer whose pH is known and that has a pH close to the pH of the sample. It is common to set the maximum allowable error of the control buffer to be ± 0.10 pH units. Do not adjust the meter to the pH of the control buffer; the purpose of this buffer is to check the accuracy of the system. If the pH reading of the control buffer is not within the required tolerance, the electrodes require maintenance.

=======

 

 

Image:Glass-microreactor

.

 

 

Lab-on-a-chip made of glass, developed at Micronit Microfluidics

Lab-on-a-chip (LOC) is a term for devices that integrate (multiple) laboratory functions on a single chip of only millimeters to a few square centimeters in size and that are capable of handling extremely small fluid volumes down to less than pico liters. Lab-on-a-chip devices are a subset of MEMS devices and often indicated by "Micro Total Analysis Systems" (µTAS) as well. Microfluidics is a broader term that describes also mechanical flow control devices like pumps and valves or sensors like flowmeters and viscometers. However, strictly regarded "Lab-on-a-Chip" indicates generally the scaling of single or multiple lab processes down to chip-format, whereas "µTAS" is dedicated to the integration of the total sequence of lab processes to perform chemical analysis. The term "Lab-on-a-Chip" was introduced later on when it turned out that µTAS technologies were more widely applicable than only for analysis purposes

Industrial and academic sectors, including: all areas of chemistry; pharmaceuticals; medicine; analytical science; synthesis; biotechnology; BioMEMS; physics; material science; bioengineering and electronics

Incorporation of well controlled temperature gradients into a microreactor provides a powerful route to separate the nucleation and growth during the synthesis of quantum dots, resulting in good size uniformity of the formed products.

.

application areas

Microfluidic structures include on one hand micropneumatic systems, i.e. microsystems for the handling of off-chip fluids (liquid pumps, gas valves, etc), and on the other hands microfluidic structures for the on-chip handling of nano- and picolitre volumes. The commercially most successful application today is the inkjet printhead.Advances in microfluidics technology are revolutionizing molecular biology procedures for enzymatic analysis (e.g., glucose and lactate assays), DNA analysis (e.g., polymerase chain reaction and high-throughput sequencing), and proteomics. The basic idea of microfluidic biochips is to integrate assay operations such as detection, as well as sample pre-treatment and sample preparation on one chip. An emerging application area for biochips is clinical pathology, especially the immediate point-of-care diagnosis of diseases. In addition, microfluidics-based devices, capable of continuous sampling and real-time testing of air/water samples for biochemical toxins and other dangerous pathogens, can serve as an always-on "bio-smoke alarm" for early warning.

 

Silicone rubber and glass microfluidic devices. Top: a photograph of the devices. Bottom: DIC micrographs of an undulating channel ~15 μm wide.

 

Glass-coated microchannels

28 February 2008

Scientists in the US have developed a simple method of coating the channels of microfluidic devices to make them more resistant to chemicals.

 

David Weitz and colleagues from Harvard University, Cambridge, used a sol-gel method to create a glass coating on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microchannels. PDMS, a type of silicone rubber, is easy to make into microfluidic devices using soft lithography, where the material is 'stamped' with a channel pattern. This makes it ideal for large-scale use.

However, PDMS is not a robust material. It is permeable to liquids and gases, which can affect reactions occurring in the channels. Additionally, organic solvents make the PDMS channels swell, degrading device performance. Glass, on the other hand, is a far more chemically robust material but is much more difficult to make into microfluidic devices.

The glass coating developed by Weitz's group is easily deposited on PDMS channels and acts as a barrier, providing resistance to chemicals and solvents. Weitz said that this method of coating would make device production easier as it 'combines the chemical robustness of glass with the ease of fabrication of PDMS'.

"They filled the channels with the mixture, initiated a gelation reaction and then used air to flush out most of the material, leaving a glass coating on the channels"

To form the coating, Weitz's group used a sol-gel mixture that begins as a fluid and hardens into a glass. They filled the channels with the mixture, initiated a gelation reaction and then used air to flush out most of the material, leaving a glass coating on the channels.

The scientists discovered that the coated channels were resistant to the fluorescent chemical Rhodamine B. After an hour of exposure to the organic solvent toluene the channels changed very little. By contrast, uncoated channels swelled upon exposure to toluene.

Stephen Haswell, who develops microfluidic devices at the University of Hull, UK, said that although there would be issues with performing reactions at high temperatures, the work represented a step towards merging the advantages of PDMS and glass. 'Lack of chemical resistance is a big problem, and it will be something of a breakthrough to extend the fabrication benefits of PDMS to give more glass-type robustness,' he said.

Weitz's group are working on refining the technique so that the thickness of the coating can be more finely controlled. 'We are also developing extensions to the method which take advantage of the glass coating,' he said.

Fay Riordan

Link to journal article

Glass coating for PDMS microfluidic channels by sol–gel methods
Adam R. Abate, Daeyeon Lee, Thao Do, Christian Holtze and David A. Weitz, Lab Chip, 2008
DOI: 10.1039/b800001h

Also of interest

Rapid reactions using microfluidic devices

A glass microchip has been used for the first time to carry out fast carbonylative cross-coupling reactions of arylhalides to form secondary amides.

Microfluidic devices with heart

Japanese researchers have harnessed the pumping power of heart cells to make better microfluidic devices.

 where is the shop of this kind of glass,?do you know

---------------------===----------------------

familiar instrumental 

 ICP)(1)

Inductively coupled plasma

 There are two types of ICP geometries: planar and cylindrical. In planar geometry, the electrode is a coil of flat metal wound like a spiral. In cylindrical geometry, it is like a helical spring.

When a time-varying electric current is passed through the coil, it creates a time varying magnetic field around it, which in turn induces azimuthal electric currents in the rarefied gas, leading to break down and formation of a plasma. Argon is one example of a commonly used rarefied gas.

Plasma temperatures can range between 6 000 K and 10 000 K, comparable to the surface of the sun.

ICP discharges are of relatively high electron density, on the order of 10¹⁵ cm^-3.

As a result, ICP discharges have wide applications where a high density plasma is necessary.

Another benefit of ICP discharges is that they are relatively free of contamination because the electrodes are completely outside the reaction chamber. In a capacitively coupled plasma (CCP), in contrast, the electrodes are often placed inside the reactor and are thus exposed to the plasma and subsequent reactive chemical species.

Applications

ICP-AES, a type of atomic emission spectrometry

• 
  
• ICP-MS, a type of mass spectrometry
• .
• ICP-RIE, a type of reactive ion etching.

 

 Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES), also referred to as Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES), is a type of emission spectroscopy that uses a plasma (e.g. inductively coupled plasma) to produce excited atoms and ions that emit electromagnetic radiation at a wavelength characteristic of a particular element.^[1][2] The intensity of this emission is indicative of the concentration of the element within the sample.

Applications

Examples of the application of ICP-AES include the determination of metals in wine,^[3] arsenic in food,^[4] and trace elements bound to proteins.^[5

 

ICP-MS Instrument
Acronym	ICP-MS
Classification	Mass spectrometry
Analytes	Inorganic compounds Organometallics

 

 

 

-----------------------======================--------------------------------------

 

 

 Radioactive pollution

 

Radioactive pollution can be defined as the release of radioactive substances or high-energy particles into the air, water, or earth as a result of human activity, either by accident or by design. The sources of such waste include: 1) nuclear weapon testing or detonation; 2) the nuclear fuel cycle, including the mining, separation, and production of nuclear materials for use in nuclear power plants or nuclear bombs; 3) accidental release of radioactive material from nuclear power plants. Sometimes natural sources of radioactivity, such as radon gas emitted from beneath the ground, are considered pollutants when they become a threat to human health.

Since even a small amount of radiation exposure can have serious (and cumulative) biological consequences, and since many radioactive wastes remain toxic for centuries, radioactive pollution is a serious environmental concern even though natural sources of radioactivity far exceed artificial ones at present.

====================================================== 

Iranian Scientist  in radio polutions 

====================================================

I am so busy so i have littel time to think about my probelems and involved it 

 

===================================================

3112 B. Cold-Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Method
1. General Discussion This method is applicable to the determination of mercury.
2. Apparatus hen possible, dedicate glassware for use in Hg analysis. Avoid using glassware previously xposed to high levels of Hg, such as those used in COD, TKN, or Cl– analysis. . Atomic absorption spectrometer and associated equipment: See Section 3111A.6. nstruments and accessories specifically designed for measurement of mercury by the cold vapor technique are available commercially and may be substituted.  b. Absorption cell, a glass or plastic tube approximately 2.5 cm in diameter. An 11.4-cm-long ube has been found satisfactory but a 15-cm-long tube is preferred. Grind tube ends erpendicular to the longitudinal axis and cement quartz windows in place. Attach gas inlet andoutlet ports (6.4 mm diam) 1.3 cm from each end. . Cell support: Strap cell to the flat nitrous-oxide burner head or other suitable support and lign in light beam to give maximum transmittance.
d. Air pumps: Use any peristaltic pump with electronic speed control capable of delivering 2  air/min. Any other regulated compressed air system or air cylinder also is satisfactory. . Flowmeter, capable of measuring an air flow of 2 L/min.
f. Aeration tubing, a straight glass frit having a coarse porosity for use in reaction flask. g. Reaction flask, 250-mL erlenmeyer flask or a BOD bottle, fitted with a rubber stopper to hold aeration tube. . Drying tube, 150-mm × 18-mm-diam, containing 20 g Mg (ClO4)2. A 60-W light bulb ith a suitable shade may be substituted to prevent condensation of moisture inside the bsorption cell. Position bulb to maintain cell temperature at 10°C above ambient. . Connecting tubing, glass tubing to pass mercury vapor from reaction flask to absorption ell and to interconnect all other components. Clear vinyl plastic*#(79) tubing may be ubstituted for glass.
3. Reagents†#(80) . Metal-free water: See Section 3111B.3c.
b. Stock mercury solution: Dissolve 0.1354 g mercuric chloride, HgCl2, in about 70 mL water, add 1 mL conc HNO3, and dilute to 100 mL with water; 1.00 mL = 1.00 mg Hg. . Standard mercury solutions: Prepare a series of standard mercury solutions containing 0 to  μg/L by appropriate dilution of stock mercury solution with water containing 10 mL concHNO3/L. Prepare standards daily. . Nitric acid, HNO3, conc.
e. Potassium permanganate solution: Dissolve 50 g KMnO4 in water and dilute to 1 L. f. Potassium persulfate solution: Dissolve 50 g K2S2O8 in water and dilute to 1 L.
g. Sodium chloride-hydroxylamine sulfate solution: Dissolve 120 g NaCl and 120 g
(NH2OH)2⋅H2SO4 in water and dilute to 1 L. A 10% hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution may e substituted for the hydroxylamine sulfate. . Stannous ion (Sn2+) solution: Use either stannous chloride, ¶ 1), or stannous sulfate, ¶ 2), o prepare this solution containing about 7.0 g Sn2+/100 mL. 1) Dissolve 10 g SnCl2 in water containing 20 mL conc HCl and dilute to 100 mL.
2) Dissolve 11 g SnSO4 in water containing 7 mL conc H2SO4 and dilute to 100 mL.
Both solutions decompose with aging. If a suspension forms, stir reagent continuously during use. Reagent volume is sufficient to process about 20 samples; adjust volumes prepared toaccommodate number of samples processed.
i. Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, conc. . Procedure . Instrument operation: See Section 3111B.4b. Set wavelength to 253.7 nm. Install bsorption cell and align in light path to give maximum transmission. Connect associated quipment to absorption cell with glass or vinyl plastic tubing as indicated in Figure 3112:1. urn on air and adjust flow rate to 2 L/min. Allow air to flow continuously. Alternatively, follow anufacturer’s directions for operation. NOTE: Fluorescent lighting may increase baseline noise.
b. Standardization: Transfer 100 mL of each of the 1.0, 2.0, and 5.0 μg/L Hg standard solutions and a blank of 100 mL water to 250-mL erlenmeyer reaction flasks. Add 5 mL conc 2SO4 and 2.5 mL conc HNO3 to each flask. Add 15 mL KMnO4 solution to each flask and let tand at least 15 min. Add 8 mL K2S2O8 solution to each flask and heat for 2 h in a water bath at 5°C. Cool to room temperature. Treating each flask individually, add enough NaCl-hydroxylamine solution to reduce excess MnO4, then add 5 mL SnCl2 or SnSO4 solution and immediately attach flask to aeration apparatus. As Hg is volatilized and carried into the absorption cell, absorbance will increase to a aximum within a few seconds. As soon as recorder returns approximately to the base line, emove stopper holding the frit from reaction flask, and replace with a flask containing water. lush system for a few seconds and run the next standard in the same manner. Construct a
standard curve by plotting peak height versus micrograms Hg.
c. Analysis of samples: Transfer 100 mL sample or portion diluted to 100 mL containing not more than 5.0 μg Hg/L to a reaction flask. Treat as in ¶ 4b. Seawaters, brines, and effluents highin chlorides require as much as an additional 25 mL KMnO4 solution. During oxidation step, hlorides are converted to free chlorine, which absorbs at 253 nm. Remove all free chlorine efore the Hg is reduced and swept into the cell by using an excess (25 mL) of hydroxylamine eagent.
Remove free chlorine by sparging sample gently with air or nitrogen after adding
hydroxylamine reducing solution. Use a separate tube and frit to avoid carryover of residual stannous chloride, which could cause reduction and loss of mercury.
5. Calculation etermine peak height of sample from recorder chart and read mercury value from standard urve prepared according to ¶ 4b.
6. Precision and Bias ata on interlaboratory precision and bias for this method are given in Table 3112:I

1. Refference : KOPP, J.F., M.C. LONGBOTTOM & L.B. LOBRING. 1972. ‘‘Cold vapor’’ method for
determining mercury. J. Amer. Water Works Assoc. 64:20..

 

 

Compendium of Pesticide Common Names

Classified Lists of Pesticides

---

Acaricides	Algicides	Antifeedants
Avicides	Bactericides	Bird repellents
Chemosterilants	Fungicides	Herbicide safeners
Herbicides	Insect attractants	Insect repellents
Insecticides	Mammal repellents	Mating disrupters
Molluscicides	Nematicides	Plant activators
Plant growth regulators	Rodenticides	Synergists
Virucides	Miscellaneous	Chemical classes

These classified lists of pesticides include all of the compounds in the Compendium of Pesticide Common Names, of which there are more than 1500.

Each major group of pesticides (e.g. herbicides or plant growth regulators) is subdivided into chemical or other classes (e.g. chloroacetanilide herbicides or auxins).

Pesticide or herbicide polymer complexes for forming aqueous dispersions

 This is a invention and it  relates to pesticides and herbicides which form complexes with a polymer for storage and handling as a solid, the pesticides and herbicides instantly dispersable into a stable emulsion when added to water.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Various pesticides and herbicides are available in liquid form such as various members of the chloroacetanilide family including metolachlor, acetochlor, pretilachlor, dimethachlor, alachlor and butachlor, which exist as oily liquids or low melting solids at ambient conditions. Such materials are usually formulated and applied in combination with various organic solvents

 

 

they will develope there resistance

to insecticides 

 

 

============================================================================

 

Environmental Impact Statement

Document Title

would you like go to this site 

FEASIBILITY STUDY DOCUMENTATION

 please set your idea and messages in this section

?Who is Frank M. Dunnivant

He is not only an associate Professor of Chemistry/He is a hard working for men Kind,Because of He is Try ing to do the better world with make a better Complex Book and software in Environment engineering. like(Writing projects include the Environmental Chemistry and Instrumental Analysis Lab manual pictured above (published in August, 2004 by John Wiley & Sons), a Basic Introduction to Fate and Transport Modeling and Risk Assessment textbook (published in January of 2006, again by John Wiley & Sons), and two Ebooks on mass spectrometry (one published and one under review)to more study skills, please see His site 

CONVERSION FACTORS, SELECTED TERMS AND SYMBOLS, CHEMICAL SYMBOLS AND FORMULAS, AND ABBREVIATIONS

CONVERSION FACTORS

Temperature: Water and air temperature are given in degrees Celsius (°C), which can be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) by use of the following equation: °F = 1.8 (°C) + 32

Selected Terms and Symbols

Nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU): A measure of turbidity in a water sample, roughly equivalent to Formazin turbidity unit (FTU) and Jackson turbidity unit (JTU).

normality (N): The number of equivalents of acid, base, or redox-active species per liter (equivalents/L) of solution. Examples: a solution that is 0.01 F in HCl is 0.01 N in H⁺. A solution that is 0.01 F in H₂SO₄ is 0.02 N in acid. Formality (F) is the number of atomic (formula) weights per 1,000 grams of solution.

Abbreviations

----------۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰==--------۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰۰

۰۰====

Acronyms and Abbreviations

==-------------

I am trying to set one related paper  every week

Assessment of the impact of industrial effluents on water quality of receiving rivers in urban areas of Malawi

O. Phiri, *P. Mumba, B. H. Z. Moyo and W. Kadewa

University of Malawi, Bunda College of Agriculture, Lilongwe, Malawi

Abstract

A study was carried out in Malawi to assess the extent of chemical pollution in a receiving river as affected by industrial effluents. Both the effluents and the water at selected points in the river were analysed for pH, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, electrical conductivity, suspended solids, nitrate, alkalinity, hardness, chloride and phosphate in the dry and rainy seasons. The results showed that the effluents were acidic in both the dry season (range: 4.2 ± 0.02–6.5 ± 0.02) and in the rainy season (range: 4.2 ± 0.05 – 5.6 ± 0.01). While the levels of dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, electrical conductivity, suspended solids, alkalinity and chloride were relatively high in the dry and rainy seasons, the concentration of phosphate and nitrate were low in both seasons. The water upstream was neutral (average pH, 7.40 ± 0.04) with high dissolved oxygen but low in the levels of the other parameters in both seasons. The water after the effluent receiving points was acidic and the levels of the other parameters were high, especially downstream. The results suggested that the water in the river was polluted and not good for human consumption. It is therefore recommended that the careless disposal of the wastes should be discouraged and although the values in some cases were lower than the allowable limits, the continued discharge of the effluents in the river may result in severe accumulation of the contaminants and, unless the authorities implement the laws governing the disposal of wastes, this may affect the lives of the people.

 Key words: Industrial effluents, river water, pollution, water quality

Introduction

Water is essential to all forms of life and makes up 50-97% of the weight of all plants and animals and about 70% of human body (Buchholz, 1998). Water is also a vital resource for agriculture, manufacturing, transportation and many other human activities. Despite its importance, water is the most poorly managed resource in the world (Fakayode, 2005). Ground and surface waters can be contaminated by several sources. In farming areas, the routine application of agricultural fertilizers is the major source (Altman and Parizek, 1995; Emongor et al., 2005). In urban areas, the careless disposal of industrial effluents and other wastes may contribute greatly to the poor quality of the water (Chindah et al., 2004; Emongor et al., 2005; Furtado et al., 1998 and Ugochukwu, 2004). A study on the impact of industrial effluent on water quality of a river carried out in Nigeria (Fakayode, 2005) showed that the chemical parameters studied were above the allowable limits and also tended to accumulate downstream. The increasing demand on water arising from fast growth of industries has put pressure on limited water resources. While most people in urban cities of the developing countries have access to piped water, several others still rely on borehole and river water for domestic use. Most of the rivers in the urban areas of the developing world are the end points of effluents discharged from the industries. Industrial effluents, if not treated and properly controlled can also pollute ground water (Olayinka, 2004; SARDC, 2005). Therefore, both bole holes and rivers generally have poor quality water in the affected areas. Since people use untreated waters from these sources, the result is continuous outbreaks of diseases such as cholera, bilharzia, diarrhoea and others. Malawi, like other African countries, is experiencing rapid industrial growth and this is making environmental conservation a difficult task (Kadongola, 1997). Although the government has put in place policies for effective environmental conservation and natural resources management, lack of political will is impeding their implementation. This is also compounded by the fact that the industrial sector shifts the responsibility of pollution prevention to the government alone and this makes it difficult to prevent pollution. As a result, there is unsustainable and wasteful utilization of resources, which give rise to dwindling wild life; more land degradation and increasing generation, and indiscriminate disposal of commercial, industrial, and domestic wastes. In the capital city of Malawi, there is a big river that runs through an industrial site and empties into Lake Malawi, approximately 120 km. away. The effluents from some industries are discharged into this river. People who live near the area use the water from the river for domestic purposes. Unfortunately, there is no information on the quality of the effluent discharged into this river and also on the quality of the water in the river for human use. Such information is important for the authorities to take proper action in preventing pollution of the environment for the good health of the population.

The objective of this study was therefore to assess the extent of chemical pollution in receiving rivers as affected by industrial effluents discharged therein

.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The study was conducted in the effluent channels from three industries and in a receiving river that runs through an industrial area in the capital city of Malawi. The layout of the area and the sample collection points are shown in Fig. 1. The major industries discharging effluents into the river are the opaque soft drink manufacturing company (Industry A), a textile company (Industry B) and opaque beer brewing company (Industry C). Industry A has a waste disposal site that is close to the river.

Samples and sampling

Samples of effluents were collected in duplicate in the morning and afternoon from points A, B and C in the channels, leading to the river, for five days. Water samples in the river were collected in duplicate in the morning and afternoon from four sampling

places 1, 2, 3 and 4. Sample point 1 was 1 km. upstream of point 2; point 4 was 1km downstream of point 3 and points 2 and 3 were half a kilometer apart. All samples were placed into thoroughly cleaned 1liter polyethylene bottles and tightly closed.

Each bottle was rinsed with the appropriate sample before the final sample collection. The samples were placed in a cooler box and then taken to the laboratory for analysis. Sampling was carried out in the dry and rainy seasons.

Chemical analysis

pH: The pH was measured directly either in the effluent channel or in the river using a pH meter. Electrical conductivity (EC): This was measured directly either in the effluent channels or the river using conductivity meter. Dissolved oxygen (DO): This was measured directly in the effluent channels or the river using a DO meter. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): This was determined by conventional methods (AOAC, 2002). A sample of the solution (50 ml.) was placed into a 500 ml BOD bottle and filled to the mark with previously prepared dilution water. A blank solution of the dilution water was similarly prepared and placed in two BOD bottles. A control solution without dilution water was also prepared and placed in a BOD bottle. The bottles were stoppered, sealed and incubated for five days at room temperature. BOD was calculated from the relation: BOD = (D1-D2)/P, where D1= dissolved oxygen 15 minutes after preparation, D2= dissolved oxygen in diluted sample after incubation and P = amount of sample used. Phosphate (PO4 3^-): To a 50 ml. sample was added 8ml. of combined reagent (a mixture of solutions of sulphuric acid, potassium antimony tartrate, ammonium molybdate and ascorbic acid), mixed and left to stand for 10 minutes. The absorbance of the solution was then measured at 880 nm. (AOAC, 2002) and the concentration of phosphate obtained from a calibration curve. Nitrate (NO3 ^-): This was determined by calorimetric methods (AOAC, 2002). To a 10 ml. sample in a sample tube was added sulphuric acid (13 N, 10 ml.). The tube was placed in a water bath at 10 o^C for 3 minutes after which brucine reagent (0.5 ml.) was added. The tube was then placed in boiling water bath for 25 minutes and then cooled.

The absorbance of the sample was read at 410 nm. using a calorimeter and the concentration of nitrate obtained from a calibration curve. Hardness (TH): This was obtained by titrimetric methods (AOAC, 2002). 25 ml. sample was diluted with distilled water after which, 2 drops of buffer solution (pH 10), sodium cyanide (250 g.) and indicator powder (200 mg.) were added. The solution was then titrated with 0.01M EDTA to a blue endpoint. The hardness was obtained as mg CaCO3/l. Suspended solids (SS): A sample (200 ml.) was left to stand for 20 minutes after which it was poured into a previously weighed platinum dish and evaporated to dryness. Chloride (Cl-): This anion was determined by titration of the sample with silver nitrate. To 100 ml. sample was added potassium chromate (5%, 1 ml.) and titrated with 0.1 M. silver nitrate solution to the first appearance of a buff color (AOAC, 2002). 238 O. Phiri, et al., Assessment

Alkalinity: This was obtained by titrating 50 ml of sample with HCl (0.1M).

Data analysis

Data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The paired t-test was used to compare the means as well as the seasonal differences in effluent quality and also the water quality of the water in the river.

Results

Table 1 shows the concentrations of the parameters obtained in the effluent from the three different industries sampled in the dry season and Table 2 shows the concentrations of the same parameters obtained in the rainy season. In the dry season, the pH was 4.2±0.05 in the effluent from industry A, 6.5±0.02 in the effluent from industry B, and 5.2±0.06 in the effluent from industry C. In the rainy season, the pH values were 4.2±0.05 in the effluent from industry C, 4.8±0.05 in the effluent from industry A and 5.6±0.01 in the effluent from industry B. The dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the rainy season ranged from 3.4±0.07 mg/l. in the effluent from industry C to 4.2±0.07 mg/l. in the effluent from industry B. In the dry season the values were 0.27±0.01 mg/l. in the effluent from industry B, 0.44±0.02 mg/l. in the effluent from industry C and 2.9±0.07 mg/l. in the effluent from industry A. The levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in the dry season were 57.8 ±2.5 mg/l. in the effluent from industry B, 79.2±5.2 mg/l. in the effluent from industry A and 110.6±5.5 mg/l. in the effluent from industry C. In the rainy season, the highest amount of BOD was in the effluent from industry C (99.4±1.9 mg/l.) and the least was in the effluent from industry B (85.6±9.2 mg/l). The electrical conductivity (EC) in the rainy season was 380.0±5.1/ Ù.cm in the effluent from industry C, 670±13.1 1/Ù.cm in the effluent from industry B and 1770.0±10.2 Ù.cm in the effluent from industry A. In the dry season, the values were 460 ± 9.2 1/ Ù.cm in the effluent from industry B, 500±10.1 1/ Ù.cm in the effluent from industry C and 780±5.5 1/Ù.cm in the effluent from industry A. The suspended solids (SS) were 37.0±4.1mg/l in the effluent from industry A, 219± 5.1mg/l in the effluent from industry B and 509±15.5 mg/l in the effluent from industry C in the rainy season. In the dry season, the values ranged from 560±4.1 mg/l. in the effluent from industry B to 707±5.5 mg/l. in the effluent from industry A. The alkalinity levels in the dry season were 140±3.1 mg. CaCO3/l. in the effluent from industry C, 166±6.1 mg. CaCO3/l. in the effluent from industry B and 396±5.3 mg CaCO3/ l. in the effluent from industry A. In the rainy season, the values ranged from 76.0±11.1 mg. CaCO3/l. in the effluent from industry C to 292.1±13.3 mg. CaCO3/l. in the effluent from industry A. The hardness (TH) in the dry season was 138±2.3mg/l.  in the effluent from industry B, 172±6.0 mg/l. in the effluent from industry C and 236±1.9 mg/l. in the effluent from industry A while in the rainy season, the values were 515.5±7.2 mg/l. in the effluent from industry C, 715±9.1 mg/l. in the effluent from industry B and 767.6±1.5 mg/l. in the effluent from industry A. In the rainy season, the concentration of chloride ranged from 17.8±1.5 mg/l. in the effluent from industry A to 28.8±1.9 mg/l. in the effluent from industry C while in the dry season, the values ranged from 24.0±3.1 mg/l. in the effluent from industry C to 36.6±1.9 mg/l. in the effluent from industry B. The concentration of phosphate in the rainy season ranged from 0.04±0.01 mg/l. in the effluent from industry A to 4.5±2.1 mg/l in the effluent from industr The parameters obtained in the water at selected points in the river (Fig. 1) in the dry and rainy seasons are given in Tables 3 and 4 respectively. In the dry season, the pH levels were 7.5±0.06 at point 1, 6.7±0.12 at point 2, 6.3±0.19 at point 3 and 7.0±0.06 at point 4 while in the rainy season the values were 7.3±0.02 at point 1, 6.4±0.23 at point 2, 5.2±0.08 at point 3 and 6.5±0.16 at point 4. The dissolved oxygen (DO) at point 1 was high in both the rainy season (5.2±0.08 mg/l) and the dry season (5.4±0.12 mg/l). While the values were slightly higher in the rainy season at points 2 (5.7±0.1.8 mg/l), 3 (4.1±0.10 mg/ l) and 4 (6.0±0.21 mg/l), they were lower at these points in the dry season. Levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) were 2.8±0.08 mg/l at point 1, 49.0±0.6 mg/l at point 2, 34.6±1.25 mg/l at point 3 and 38.1±0.9 mg/l at point 4 in the dry season. In the rainy season the values were 4.2±1.13 mg/l, 15.8±1.03 mg/l, 24.5±1.41 mg/l and  6.6±0.74 mg/l respectively, at these points. The electrical conductivity (EC) was 960±11.54 1/Ω.cm at point 1, 430±17.33 1/Ω.cm at point 2, 1090±5.8 1/Ω.cm at point   and 1022±6.11 1/Ω.cm. at point 4 in the dry season. In the rainy season, the electrical conductivities ranged from 498.3 ± 6.01 1/Ω.cm at point 1 to 583.3±4.41 1/Ω.cm at point 4. The values at points 2 and 3 were much higher. In the dry season, the hardness of the water was 417.0±4.93 mg. CaCO3/ l. at point 1, 113.3±3.50 mg.  CaCO3/l at point 2, 330.7±1.80 mg. CaCO3/l at point 3 and 245.7±2.60 mg. CaCO3/l at point 4 while in the rainy season the values were 246.0±2.32 mg. CaCO3/l at point 1, 362.7±2.45 mg. CaCO3/l at point 2, 342.2±3.01 mg. CaCO3/l at point 3 and 297.8±2.01 mg. CaCO3/l. at point 4. The alkalinity of the water was 379.3±1.8 mg CaCO3/l upstream, 136.0±1.15 mg. CaCO3/l at point 2, 338.0±1.15 mg. CaCO3/l at point 3 and 360.0 ±2.31 mg. CaCO3/l at point 4 in the dry season while in the rainy season, the values were 51.0 ±2.08 mg. CaCO3/l at point 1, 220.0±1.2 mg. CaCO3/l at point 2, 208.0±2.91 mg. CaCO3/l at point 3 and 344.7±2.0 mg CaCO3/l at point 4. In the dry season, the levels of suspended solids were 22.0±1.15 mg/l at point 1, 97.7±1.45 mg/l at point 2, 238.0±4.16 mg/l at point 3 and 253.7±0.81 mg/l at point 4  and in the rainy season these were 665.0±13.2 mg/l at point 1, 62.9±0.58 at point 2, 82.3±1.45 mg/l at point 3and 77.7±1.45 mg/l at point 4. The concentration of chloride in water in the dry season was 24.8±0.71 mg/l at point 1, 36.5±1.92 mg/l at point 2, 38.2±1.0 mg/l at point 3 and 39.8 ± 0.05 mg/l at point 4. In the rainy season the values

were 24.8±1.22 mg/l, 28.7±0.72 mg/l, 31.2±0.12 mg/ l and 34.7±0.35 mg/l at these points respectively. The concentration of phosphate in the dry season was 0.03±0.01 mg/l at point 1, 0.13±0.01 mg/l at point 2, 0.02±0.01 mg/l at point 3 and 2.07±0.1 mg/ l at point 4. In the rainy season, the values were 2.46±0.08 mg/l at point 1, 0.05±0.0 mg/l at point 2, 0.07±0.01 mg/l at point 3 and 1.11±0.03 mg/l at point 4. The concentration of nitrate averaged 0.02±0.1mg/l in the dry season and 0.01±0.0 mg/l in the rainy season.

Discussion and Conclusion

The results showed that the pH of the effluent from industry A was the lowest in the dry season while pH for the effluent from industry B was the highest. The low pH levels in the effluent from industries A and C could be due to the raw materials

such as corn, sorghum, enzymes, lactic acid and yeast that are used by these two industries. However, in the rainy season the effluent from industry C was the most acidic and that from industry B was least acidic. Notable was the fact that in

both seasons, the effluents were acidic (pH<7.0) The dissolved oxygen levels in the dry season differed significantly (p<0.05), being lowest in the effluent from industry B and highest in the effluent from industry A. The low DO value from the effluent

in the textile company suggests that this industry was producing a lot of organic substances, most likely, the dyes, which are high oxygen-demanding wastes. Seasonal differences were also significant (p<0.05), the values being lower in the dry season

than in the rainy season. The higher values in the rainy season could be due to rainwater, which resulted in more freshness of the water. All the values were below the minimum standard (>5mg/l.) set by the Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS, 2000). The levels of biochemical oxygen demand varied significantly (p<0.05) between the effluents in the dry season, being highest in the effluent from industry C and lowest in the effluent from industry B. The rainy season levels also varied between sampling points.

 In this case however, the highest amount was in the effluent from industry C and the least was in the effluent from industry B. The rainy season values were much higher than the dry season ones. In the dry season, the values of electrical conductivities were much lower (p<0.05) than those in the rainy season. The higher values in the rainy season could be due to ground water and surface runoff from the surrounding farming areas that might have brought in ionic substances such as nitrates, chlorides and phosphates from fertilizers. This was also shown by the higher values of these ions in the rainy season compared to those in the dry season. The suspended solids were highest in the effluent from industry C in the rainy season and the least were in the effluent from industry A. However, the values in the dry season were much higher (p<0.05) in all the effluents. The alkalinity levels were much higher (p<0.05) in the dry season than in the rainy season. The hardness (TH) in the effluents followed the opposite trend to that of alkalinity. The values were higher in the rainy season compared to those in the dry season. In both seasons the values were highest in the effluent from industry A. The pH of the water in the river showed considerable variation. Upstream (point 1), the water was nearly neutral in the two seasons. The effluents from the industries did not directly affect point 1 and as such, the observed pH values were what would be expected of normal river water. The water at points 2, 3 and 4 was however more acidic than it was upstream. Although industry A was not directly contributing to the water quality, the effects of the effluents from industries B and C were apparent in this respect. The pH values were lower at points 2, 3 and 4 in both seasons. The relatively lower values in the rainy season could be due to a combined effect of the effluent and some incoming fertilizers such as calcium ammonium nitrate and urea from the farming areas due to runoff. The dissolved oxygen at point 1 was low in both the rainy season and the dry season. Although the values were slightly higher in the rainy season at points 2, 3 and 4, they were lower at these points in the dry season. The slightly lower DO level at point 2 in the dry season could be due to the nature of the effluent that was released immediately before that point. The effluent discharged had DO level of 0.27mg/l., which suggested that the industries were releasing some organic substances that were high oxygen-demanding wastes (Emongor et al., 2005). In addition, it had been observed, during sample collection, that the water was calm at this point probably because of the presence of some plants that were growing there and this might have retarded oxygen mixing between the atmosphere and water (Boyd, 1990). However, at point 4, the DO level increased slightly and this could be due to fewer plants growing there than at point 2, and this might have helped to increase flow of water which in turn helped aeration of the water. The higher DO values in the rainy season could be a result increased water volume in the river. The BOD levels were generally high at points 2 and 3 in the dry season. The higher values at these points meant that there were greater quantities of degradable wastes probably from the effluents from industries B and C both of which had BOD levels of 57.8±2.5mg/l. and 110.6±5.2mg/l. respectively, at the points of discharge into the stream. This also corresponded with the low DO levels that were noted at these points. The levels of BOD during the rainy season varied significantly (p<0.05) between points, although, the amounts at point 2 and point 3 did not vary significantly. This could be due to the fact that the effluent from industry A that was being dumped in a pit behind its premises, might have been washed away by storm  water and affected the quality of water in the river. The electrical conductivities were higher (p<0.05) at points 3 and 4 in the dry season. The lower EC observed at point 2 could be due to the fact that since industry B is a textile factory, it could be using synthetic detergents in its operations and these could precipitate ionic species, resulting in low conductivity.

The higher conductivities observed at points 3 and 4 could be attributed to the relatively low DO and high BOD levels in the effluents coming from the industries B and C. However, in the rainy season, the electrical conductivities were lower than those observed in the dry season. This was attributed to dilution of salts arising from increased water volume in the river. Significant differences (p<0.05) between sampling points were also observed. There were also significant seasonal differences between sampling points with point 2 showing a tremendous increase. In the dry season, the hardness of the water was surprisingly high upstream. Activities were observed upstream and beyond point 1 that included farming, bathing and washing of clothes by villagers around the area and these activities could account for the high level of hardness of the water. In the rainy season, the hardness exhibited a different trend from that in the dry season. Water hardness increased from point 1 to point 2 and steadily decreased at points 3 and 4. However, at point 4 (downstream), the levels declined, and this was in contrast to what other workers found out (Fakayode, 2005). There were significant seasonal differences (p<0.05) in the mean levels of hardness between points. In general, the values obtained from the different points in different

seasons showed that the water was relatively hard bathing. Since most soaps have water-softening agents such as washing soda and sodium carbonate, the use of soaps might have increased the concentration of carbonates and hence alkalinity. The relatively greater levels of alkalinity observed at points 3 and 4 could be attributed to low levels of DO after the out fall of the effluents from industry C at point 3. In the rainy season, a different trend was observed; the low levels of alkalinity observed upstream could be attributed to the fact that during this time, the water at this point was turbid and dirty probably as a result of land runoff, and this might have prevented people from using the water for washing and bathing. In the dry season, the lowest levels of suspended solids were obtained at point 1 and the highest levels were obtained at point 3. This was attributed to the fact that during this period, the water was relatively free from materials that were brought in the river through runoff. The high levels of solids at points 2, 3 and 4 were attributed to the entry of effluents from industries B and C. This showed that the entry of these effluents had an impact on the levels of solids in the river. However, in the rainy season, greater levels of suspended solids were obtained at point 1, with the least at point 4. As similar studies (Fakayode, 2005) have shown that contaminants tend to accumulate downstream, it is difficult to explain the opposite effect in this observation. In the dry season, the concentration of chloride was highest (p<0.05) at point 4 and least at point 1 in agreement with what has been observed in other studies (Fakayode, 2005). A similar trend was observed in the rainy season. The concentrations in the dry season were higher though than in the rainy season. The concentration of phosphate varied between sampling points in the dry season, being highest at point 4. The concentration at points 1, 2 and 3 did not differ much. However, in the rainy season, the trend was the opposite; it decreased downstream. The concentration of nitrate did not differ significantly between sampling points in both the dry season and the rainy season. In general, the values were higher in the wet season than in the dry season probably as a result of surface runoff of fertilizers from the farming areas. Overall, the study has shown that the effluents from the industries have a big impact on the water quality of the receiving river. Although the values in some cases were lower than the allowable limits, the  continued discharge of the effluents in the river may result in severe accumulation of the contaminants and, unless the authorities implement the laws governing the disposal of wastes, this may in turn affect the lives of the people. The results of this study have shown that the effluents were very acidic in both the dry and rainy seasons. While dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, electrical conductivity, suspended solids, alkalinity and chloride were relatively high, in the dry and rainy seasons, the concentrations of phosphate and nitrate were low. In the dry season, the water upstream was neutral with high dissolved oxygen but low in levels of the other parameters. The water after the effluent receiving points was acidic and the levels of the other parameters were high and especially downstream. The results suggest that the effluents being discharged into the river have considerable negative effects on the water quality of the water in the river and as such, the water is not good for human use. It is therefore recommended that that careless disposal of the wastes should be discouraged and if possible, there is need to install a treatment plant for all the industrial wastes so that they are treated before being dumped into the environment.

References

Altman S. J. and Parizek R. R., (1995). Dilution of nonpoint source nitrate in ground water. J. Environ.  Quality, 24, 707-717.

Anonymous., (2000). MBS Guidelines on constituents of health significance, MBS, Malawi,Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS).

Anonymous., (2002). Official methods of analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Maryland, USA. 17th. Ed., Association of Official American Chemists (AOAC).

Anonymous., (2005). Factsheet 11, Pollution, available at www.sardc.net/imercsa/, SARDC.

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IMPROVING YOUR STUDY SKILLS

        Study skills are simply the various skills you need to be able to study efficiently. Many people have surprisingly poor study skills

Several study skills depend upon the ability to use abbreviations effectively. When making notes (from a text in front of you), abbreviations help you to summarise information in a small space. This is immensely useful when you start your revision programme.

When taking notes (while listening to someone speaking), abbreviations are even more useful. Some students try to write down everything the lecturer or broadcaster is saying. This is impossible! These days few people learn shorthand (if you do know shorthand, use it!), so we need to use abbreviations. Many of these are standard, but you will find it helpful to invent your own. Here is a list of well-established abbreviations:

======?It is necessary and sufficient to know it. ,Is it not======

this is waste book.===== !Dont waste my time!==..et al====

 please set your idea and messages in this section

Environment disasters .....I hope to chenge to  .....enviroment healty

 

now today

 

 ..........--------=======1111110000000111111=======-------.............

 

arsenic poisoning— in what the World Health Organization (WHO) has called the “largest mass poisoning of a population in history.”,WHO

           

 

 

 

2. The Bangladesh arsenic crisis

Arsenic is a poisonous metalloid that can be found in three forms; yellow, grey and black arsenic. Arsenic compounds are used as pesticides and in various alloys. It is not only toxic to insects and some plants, but also to humans. Its toxicity stems from the similarity of the chemical structure to phosphorus, causing it to partly substitute phosphorus in chemical reactions.
Bangladesh, has had major drinking water problems for many decades. Most people used to drink surface water, which led to the spread of pathogens such as cholera and dysentery. International organizations started promoting groundwater welling for drinking water production. It was however not known that groundwater in Bangladesh contained significant amounts of arsenic. The arsenic present in the groundwater is of natural origin, being released from subsurface sediment layers under anoxic conditions. Many other Asian countries, such as Vietnam, Cambodia and Tibet are thought to have similar geological environments as Bangladesh. These countries may also have high-arsenic groundwater.

When drinking water wells were installed in Bangladesh, approximately 57 million Bangladeshi people started drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations far above the legal limit of 0,05 mg/L. After several years of applying groundwater as drinking water over a quarter of the Bangladeshi population exhibited symptoms of arsenic poisoning (arsenicosis).
Arsenic poisoning kills people by disrupting the digestive system. Symptoms include changes in skin colour, formation of skin patches (see picture), stomach pains, vomiting, delirium and gangrene. Chronic low level arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh also results in cancers, such as lung cancer, skin cancer, kidney cancer and bladder cancer.

The arsenic problem was first discovered in the early 1980s, but public awareness of the arsenic crisis did not emerge until the mid-1990s. The World Health Organisation has described the naturally occurring arsenic as the largest mass poisoning of a population in history. Today, more than 85 million Bangladeshi people are drinking the arsenic-rich groundwater. It is very probable at least 80 million people now suffer from arsenic poisoning. The exact number is uncertain because it may sometimes take up to 10 years before arsenic poisoning can be diagnosed.

Legal proceedings began in London in 2003 to determine whether the British Geological Survey was negligent in failing to detect arsenic in Bangladeshi water supplies. The organization conducted research on behalf of the Bangladesh government in 1992, but did not test the groundwater for arsenic. The organization pleas 'not guilty' and argues that at the time of its report little was known about the geological origins of arsenic poisoning.

 

 

 .

 Determination of arsenic with sodium borohydride

 hydride generator: The basic unit is composed of two parts: a precision
peristaltic pump, which is used to meter and mix reagents and sample solutions, and the
gas-liquid separator. At the gas-liquid separator a constant flow of argon strips out the hydrogen and metal hydride gases formed in the reaction and carries them to the heated quartz absorption cell (Section 3114B.1b and Section 3114B.2b), which is supported by a metal bracket mounted on top of the regular air acetylene burner head. The spent liquid flows out of the separator via a 

constant level side drain to a waste bucket. Schematics and operating parameters are shown in.

Check flow rates frequently to ensure a steady flow; an uneven flow in any tubing will cause
an erratic signal. Remove tubings from pump rollers when not in use. Typical flow rates are: sample, 7 mL/min; acid, 1 mL/min; borohydride reagent, 1 mL/min. Argon flow usually is re-fixed, typically at 90 mL/min.
 
 .Determination of arsenic with sodium borohydride: To 50 mL digested standard or sample in a 200-mL Berzelius beaker (see Figure 3114:1) add 5 mL conc HCl and mix. Add 5 mL NaI rereductant solution, mix, and wait at least 30 min. (NOTE: The NaI reagent has not been found necessary for certain hydride reaction cell designs if a 20 to 30% loss in instrument sensitivity is not important and variables of solution acid conditions, temperatures, and volumes for production of As(V) and arsine can be  controlled strictly. Such control requires an automated delivery system ;
 .Attach one Berzelius beaker at a time to the rubber stopper containing the gas dispersion tube for the purging gas, the sodium borohydride reagent inlet, and the outlet to the quartz cell.
Turn on strip-chart recorder and wait until the base line is established by the purging gas and all air is expelled from the reaction cell. Add 0.5 mL sodium borohydride reagent. After the nstrument absorbance has reached a maximum and returned to the base line, remove beaker,inse dispersion tube with water, and proceed to the next sample or standard. Periodically ompare standard As(III) and As(V) curves for response consistency. Check for presence of hemical interferences that suppress instrument response for arsine by treating a digested sample ith 10 μg/L As(III) or As(V) as appropriate. Average recoveries should be not less than 90%.
 Calculation

Construct a standard curve by plotting peak heights or areas of standards versus
concentration of standards. Measure peak heights or areas of samples and read concentrations from curve. If sample was diluted (or concentrated) before sample digestion, apply an ppropriate factor. On instruments so equipped, read concentrations directly after standard alibration.
 .

Arsenic Poisoning

It is another  usfull weblog

 please set your idea and messages in this section

|  پیام های شما برای من(.....)  set your message to me please ( ...... 

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POLLUTION News

 

THE INTERVIEW WITH GOD

مصاحبه با خدا

I dreamed I had an interview with God.

So you would like to interview me? God asked.

What surprises you most about humankind?

پرسیدم: چه چیزی در رفتار انسان ها هست که شما را شگفت زده می کند؟

God answered...

پاسخ داد:

 

That they get bored with childhood,

آدم ها از بچه بودن خسته می شوند ...

they rush to grow up, and then

عجله دارند بزرگ شوند و سپس.....

Long to be children again.

آرزو دارند دوباره به دوران کودکی باز گردند

That they lose their health to make money...

سلامتی خود را در راه کسب ثروت از دست می دهند

and then lose their money to restore their health.

و سپس ثروت خود را در راه کسب سلامتی دوباره مصرف می کنند....

That by thinking anxiously about the future,

چنان با هیجان به آینده فکر می کنند.

They forget the present,

که از حال غافل می شوند

به طوری که نه در حال زندگی می کنند نه در آینده

"That they live as if they will never die,

آن ها طوری زندگی می کنند.،انگار هیچ وقت نمی میرند

and die as though they had never lived.

و جوری می میرند ....انگار هیچ وقت زنده نبودن


reference
برگرفته از سایت http://abrishami.blogfa.com/آموزش مستقیم زبان انگلیسی و آموزش الکترونیک در سایت http://elanguage.com/learn-to-speak-english-online.html

and have Kiled the humanity in Other places(IRAQ)i

who is rigth? the one is killed or killer?i

  you know that some one that dont shake hand  others , but he alwase shake hand (touched)  animals (who is right?)i

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and now this is some thing in my heart

 .....

 تو، هشتمین خورشیدی که درسایه‌اش آسمان را تجربه کرده‌ایم

..... in mashhad,Iran It is a picture of emam reza mausoleum ..

مشهد مقدس -- حرم آقا علی ابن موسی الرضا (ع)

روضه منوره (ضریح مطهر )

پخش زنده ومستقیم از کربلا و مشهد و نجف

 

An atheist professor of philosophy speaks to his class on the problem science has with God, The Almighty. He asks one of his new students to stand and.....

Prof: So you believe in God?

Student: Absolutely, sir.

Prof: Is God good?

Student: Sure.

Prof: Is God all-powerful?

Student: Yes.

Prof: My brother died of cancer even though he prayed to God to heal him. Most of us would attempt to help others who are ill. But God didn't. How is this God good then? Hmm?
(Student is silent.)

Prof: You can't answer, can you? Let's start again, young fella. Is God good?

Student: Yes.

Prof: Is Satan good?

Student: No.

Prof: Where does Satan come from?

Student: From...God...

Prof: That's right. Tell me son, is there evil in this world?

Student: Yes.

Prof: Evil is everywhere, isn't it? And God did make everything. Correct?

Student: Yes.

Prof: So who created evil?

(Student does not answer.)

Prof: Is there sickness? Immorality? Hatred? Ugliness?All these terrible things exist in the world, don't they?

Student: Yes, sir.

Prof: So, who created them?
(Student has no answer.)

Prof: Science says you have 5 senses you use to identify and observe the world around you. Tell me, son...Have you ever seen God?

Student: No, sir.

Prof: Tell us if you have ever heard your God?

Student: No, sir.

Prof: Have you ever felt your God, tasted your God, smelt your God? Have you ever had any sensory perception of God for that matter?

Student: No, sir. I'm afraid I haven't.

Prof: Yet you still believe in Him?

Student: Yes.

Prof: According to empirical, testable, demonstrable protocol, science says your GOD doesn't exist. What do you say to that, son?

Student: Nothing. I only have my faith.

Prof: Yes. Faith. And that is the problem science has.

Student: Professor, is there such a thing as heat?

Prof: Yes.

Student: And is there such a thing as cold?

Prof: Yes.

Student: No sir. There isn't.

(The lecture theater becomes very quiet with this turn of events.)

Student: Sir, you can have lots of heat, even more heat, superheat, mega heat, white heat, a little heat or no heat. But we don't have anything called cold. We can hit 458 degrees below zero which is no heat, but we can't go any further after that.
There is no such thing as cold .. Cold is only a word we use to describe the absence of heat. We cannot measure cold. Heat is energy . Cold is not the opposite of heat, sir, just the absence of it .
(There is pin-drop silence in the lecture theater.)


Student: What about darkness, Professor? Is there such a thing as darkness?

Prof: Yes. What is night if there isn't darkness?

Student: You're wrong again, sir. Darkness is the absence of something. You can have low light, normal light, bright light, flashing light....But if you have no light constantly, you have nothing and it's called darkness, isn't it? In reality, darkness isn't. If it were you would be able to make darkness darker, wouldn't you?

Prof: So what is the point you are making, young man?

Student: Sir, my point is your philosophical premise is flawed.

Prof: Flawed? Can you explain how?

Student: Sir, you are working on the premise of duality. You argue there is life and then there is death, a good God and a bad God. You are viewing the concept of God as something finite, something we can measure. Sir, science can't even explain a thought. It uses electricity and magnetism, but has never seen, much less fully understood either one. To view death as the opposite of life is to be ignorant of the fact that death cannot exist as a substantive thing.. Death is not the opposite of life: just the absence of it. Now tell me, Professor.Do you teach your students that they evolved from a monkey?

Prof: If you are referring to the natural evolutionary process, yes, of course, I do.

Student: Have you ever observed evolution with your own eyes, sir?
(The Professor shakes his head with a smile, beginning to realize where the argument is going.)

Student: Since no one has ever observed the process of evolution at work and cannot even prove that this process is an on-going endeavor, are you not teaching your opinion, sir? Are you not a scientist but a preacher?

(The class is in uproar.)

Student: Is there anyone in the class who has ever seen the Professor's brain?
(The class breaks out into laughter.)

Student: Is there anyone here who has ever heard the Professor's brain, felt it, touched or smelt it? No one appears to have done so. So, according to the established rules of empirical, stable, demonstrable protocol, science says that you have no brain,sir. With all due respect, sir, how do we then trust your lectures, sir?
(The room is silent. The professor stares at the student, his face unfathomable.)

Prof: I guess you'll have to take them on faith, son.


Student: That is it sir... The link between man & god is FAITH . That is all that keeps things moving & alive.

 

NB: I believe you have enjoyed the conversation...and if so...you'll probably want your friends/colleagues to enjoy the same...won't you?....this is a true story, and the student was none other than......... 

Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, the former President of India .

 

When I was a child I saw in my dream  that Some one was fasten me with chain to others

I thought he was mohamad massenger of moseams

than I saw more and more thing that make my life nice more and more

I hope to accure for others too

so

It is naturaly I think about environmental intellectuality of the world

Is it means like this picture? so

please send your massage

Macca

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there is some electronice books for download for my user webloge>>

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اگر کتابهای الکترونیکی زیر رو میخواهید با من تماس بگیرید تا در اولین فرصت براتون بفرستم.البته تعداد این کتابها زیادن, شاید آدرس دسترسی بتون دادم تا دانلودشون کنید.

ELEMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

Ronald A. Hites )(Indiana University)

ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY EXERCISES FOR INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSIS AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

FRANK M. DUNNIVANT )(Whitman College)
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Practical Solutions to Recurrent Problems

)(DAVID P. LAWRENCE )(Lawrence Environmental
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

 

SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL POLLUTION

 

ACOMPLEATE GUIDE

 

EMMA P. POPEK

 

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Environmental impact assessment of irrigation and drainage projects

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http://www.fao.org/docrep/v8350e/v8350e00.htm

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Soil and Water Research institute

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The National Salinity Research Center (NSRC
مرکز ملی تحقیقات شوری
http://www.insrc.org

 

Some time we just see! and some other time we think more,/ but when we will chenge? after that, the world will chenge? or not,/ what is the most thing that can get together people.Do you know? it